Social Organization
- The social transformation in the Later Vedic Period is much more clearly reflected in the references in the Vedic texts.
- The social divisions of varna became more established.
- Teaching was seen as the occupation of the Brahmanas.
- The wives of Brahmanas and cows were given important status.
- Rajanya refers to kshatriyas and they were the warriors and rulers who received bali as tax.
- Striking changes took place in the Varna System.
- There was an increase in the privileges of the two higher classes, the Brahmanas and the Kshatriyas at the cost of the Vaisyas and Sudras.
- In the Panchavimsa Brahmana, the Kshatriya is placed first, higher than the Brahmana but in the Satapatha Brahmana, the Brahmana is placed higher than Kshatriya.
- In later Vedic society the importance of the purohita (priest) is stressed, as mentioned in the Vedic texts.
- The Kshatriyas challenged Brahmanical supremacy and their exclusive privilege of entering the asramas, a regulated four stage life namely brahmacharya, grihasta, vanaprastha and sanyasa.
- The outcome of this was the birth of Jainism, Buddhism and Ajivakam.
- The system of four Varnas had taken deep root and became rigid in the course of time.
- The popularity of rituals helped the Brahmanas to attain power.
- Brahmanas became important and the kings supported them, although they had conflicts with Rajanyas, the warrior nobles.
- The concept of dvija (twice-born) developed and the upanayana (sacred thread) was limited to the upper sections of the society.
- This ceremony marked the initiation for education.
- The fourth varna was denied this privilege and the Gayatri mantra could not be recited by the Sudras.
- Women were also denied upanayana and Gayatri mantra.
- The king asserted his authority over the three varnas.
- The Aitreya Brahmana refers to the Brahmana as the seeker of support and he could be removed by king from his position.
- Certain craft groups managed to attain higher status.
- For example, the Rathakaras, the chariot makers, had the right to wear the sacred thread.
- Vaisya referred to the common people. They were involved in agriculture, cattle breeding and artisans. Later they became traders. Vaisyas paid tax to the kings.
- Some social groups were placed in ranking even below the Sudras.
- However, cross varna marriages did happen.
- The idea of gotra emerged in the later Vedic period.
- Gotra literally meant ‘cowpen’ and it referred to a group of people from a common ancestor.
- Persons of the same gotra were considered as brothers and sisters and could not therefore intermarry.
- Several unilineal descent groups existed with common ancestors.
- Several related clans formed the tribe.
Family
- The household became more structured, which means it became more organised.
- The family was an important social unit.
- The family was patriarchal with patrilineal descent.
- The relations within the family were hierarchical.
- Polygyny (taking many wives) was prevalent.
- Several household rituals were also developed for the welfare of the family.
- The married man with his wife was the yajamana.
- The concept of asramas, referring to various stage of life, was not well established in this time.
- While brahmacharya, grihasta and vanaprastha are mentioned, sanyasa had not developed.
Women
- The status of women declined as the society became more structured and the patriarchal family became more important.
- In the family the father was the head.
- The right of primogeniture was strong.
- Though women had participated in rituals in the Rig Vedic period, they were excluded in the later Vedic period.
- Daughters are spoken of as a source of trouble.
- Their work was to look after the cattle, milking animals and fetching water.